Why did the Knights defeat the Ottomans but not the French?
The Mediterranean island of Malta has long been a strategic linchpin for empires vying for control over the region. The Knights of St. John, later known as the Knights of Malta, turned the island into a bastion of Christian defense against Ottoman expansion in the 16th century. Their success during the Great Siege of 1565 defending the three cities cemented their reputation as formidable warriors. However, their reliance on corsairing—state-sanctioned piracy—became both a cornerstone of their economy and a catalyst for their eventual downfall.
This article delves into how the Knights’ corsairing activities impacted their finances and their ability to prepare for war, ultimately leaving them unprepared for the French invasion in 1798. We will explore the evolution of their military tactics, the economic implications of their actions, and the lessons that can be drawn from their rise and fall.
The Golden Age of Corsairing: A Double-Edged Sword
Corsairing as an Economic Lifeline
After being granted Malta by Emperor Charles V in 1530, the Knights of St. John ransformed the island into a hub of corsairing activities. With the approval of the Pope and European monarchs, they targeted Ottoman and Barbary ships, capturing valuable cargo and enslaving prisoners. This practice was not merely opportunistic piracy but a continuation of their crusading mission against Islam.
Corsairing became the Knights’ primary source of income, funding the construction of impressive fortifications like Fort St. Angelo and the fortified city of Valletta. The wealth amassed allowed them to maintain a powerful navy and a well-equipped army, essential for defending against Ottoman aggression.
The Great Siege of 1565: Corsairing Pays Off
The Knights’ aggressive actions in the Mediterranean provoked Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, the 10th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, leading to the Great Siege of Malta in 1565. An Ottoman force of approximately 30,000 men besieged the island, aiming to eliminate the Knights once and for all.
Leveraging their extensive fortifications and naval expertise gained from corsairing, the Knights, under Grand Master Jean de la Valette, mounted a resilient defense with just around 6,000 men, including both Maltese and Spanish soldiers. Reinforcements arrived in phases, with the Piccolo Soccorso (“Small Relief”) arriving first from Sicily, followed by the decisive Gran Soccorso (“Great Relief”), which marked the turning point of the siege. The siege lasted four months, ending with the Ottomans retreating after suffering significant losses, including the death of the renowned corsair, Dragut Reis, also known as Turgut.
This victory not only bolstered Christian morale across Europe but also demonstrated the effectiveness of the Knights’ investment in their defenses, funded largely by their corsairing profits.
The Slow Decline: Corsairing Becomes a Liability
Changing Attitudes and Economic Realities
By the 18th century, , the geopolitical landscape of the Mediterranean had shifted dramatically. European powers began prioritizing stable trade routes and diplomatic relations over religious conflicts. The Knights’ continued corsairing was increasingly viewed as piracy, straining relationships with nations that once supported them, especially emerging trade powers like Britain.
Technological advancements in naval warfare made their traditional methods less effective. Steam-powered ships and improved naval artillery rendered the Knights’ galleys obsolete. Furthermore, international trade laws evolved to protect neutral shipping, diminishing the legitimacy of corsairing.
Financial Mismanagement and Overreliance on Piracy
The Knights failed to diversify their economy, remaining heavily dependent on the volatile income from corsairing. As profits dwindled, they struggled to maintain their fleet and fortifications. The costs of upkeeping their defenses and the lavish lifestyles of some of the Knights drained their treasury.
Attempts to reform their financial practices were too little, too late. The Order faced mounting debts, and internal corruption eroded the discipline and unity that had once been their strength.
Preparing for the Wrong War: The Ottoman Focus
Anticipating a Second Ottoman Siege
The Knights remained fixated on the threat of another Ottoman attack. They invested heavily in strengthening their fortifications, updating coastal defenses, and constructing new bastions. While these efforts would have been prudent in the 16th century, they failed to consider the changing nature of warfare and the emergence of new adversaries.
Neglecting Emerging Threats
Their singular focus on the Ottomans blinded them to the rising power of France under Napoleon Bonaparte. The Knights did not modernize their military tactics or equipment to counter the advanced strategies and technologies employed by contemporary European armies.
The French Invasion of 1798: A “Polaroid Moment”
A Failure to Adapt
The term “Polaroid moment” refers to a failure to adapt to technological and market changes, leading to obsolescence—a fate that befell the Polaroid Corporation with the advent of digital photography. Similarly, the Knights’ inability to evolve economically and militarily left them ill-prepared for the French invasion.
Internal Divisions and the Leadership of Grand Master Hompesch
Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch’s leadership during the critical period leading up to the French invasion was fraught with challenges. Personal letters discovered in the archives of the Hompesch family reveal:
Weak Leadership and Financial Struggles:
- Hompesch grappled with personal debts and lacked the financial resources to effectively bolster Malta’s defenses.
- His attempts to secure aid from other European powers were largely unsuccessful or arrived too late.
Internal Betrayal and Factionalism:
- The Order was divided along national lines, with some French and Spanish knights sympathetic to Napoleon or influenced by the ideals of the French Revolution.
- Acts of sabotage, such as defective gunpowder and mismatched ammunition, crippled the island’s defenses from within.
- Hompesch’s strained relationship with the Maltese people, who were disillusioned by heavy taxation and social inequalities, left him without crucial local support.
- His own discontent with Malta and longing for Germany may have affected his ability to inspire and lead effectively.
Underestimating the Threat:
- Hompesch failed to fully recognize the internal dangers posed by espionage and revolutionaries within the Order.
- His focus remained on traditional external threats, leaving him unprepared for the multifaceted challenges he faced.
Napoleon’s Strategic Mastery
In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte set his sights on Malta as a strategic asset for his Egyptian campaign. He brought with him a force of around 30,000 troops and a powerful naval fleet. The Knights could muster only about 7,000 soldiers, many of whom were poorly trained and equipped. Read more about the French invasion of Malta.
Napoleon exploited the Knights’ vulnerabilities:
- Diplomatic Isolation: The Knights had alienated potential allies through their corsairing, receiving no assistance against the French. This isolation played a crucial role during the French blockade and occupation of Malta.
- Outdated Defenses: Their fortifications were ill-suited to withstand modern siege artillery. Napoleon’s forces, using advanced siege tactics, quickly overwhelmed these defenses. Details of these tactics can be explored here.
- Internal Divisions: The multinational Order faced conflicting loyalties, with many French knights sympathetic to Napoleon’s cause due to the influence of the French Revolution. These divisions weakened their ability to coordinate an effective resistance.
- Weak Leadership: Grand Master von Hompesch failed to unite the Order or develop a coherent strategy to resist the invasion. His leadership shortcomings were starkly evident during this crisis.
- Local Discontent: The Maltese population, burdened by heavy taxation and social inequality, no longer supported the Knights as they had during the Great Siege. This loss of local support critically undermined the Knights’ ability to defend against the French invasion.
Facing overwhelming force and lacking both internal unity and external support, the Knights surrendered Malta to the French within 72 hours of Napoleon’s arrival. Hompesch did not sign the capitulation document, hoping to preserve the Order’s sovereignty over Malta. This marked the end of their rule and highlighted the consequences of their failure to adapt and address internal weaknesses.
Lessons from the Knights’ Downfall
Adaptability Is Crucial
The Knights’ overreliance on corsairing, an outdated economic model, and their failure to modernize militarily were key factors in their downfall. For example, their lack of response to advancements in military technology and tactics left them vulnerable to Napoleon’s forces. Organizations must be willing to reassess and modify their approaches in response to evolving external conditions, as demonstrated during the French invasion of Malta.
Economic Diversification
Depending on a single, volatile revenue source is risky. The Knights neglected opportunities to develop other economic sectors that could have provided more stability and resilience. Their focus on corsairing, while lucrative in earlier centuries, failed to adapt to the changing economic and geopolitical landscape of the Mediterranean.
Strategic Awareness
A narrow focus on traditional enemies can blind an organization to new threats. The Knights’ preoccupation with the Ottomans prevented them from recognizing and preparing for the danger posed by Napoleon’s France. As seen in their failure to anticipate modern siege strategies, strategic awareness is crucial for survival in a rapidly changing environment. Their losses in Rhodes, the invasion of Gozo, their corsairing success and their defeat of the Ottomans led them to believe in a trend for which they prepared a roadmap and executed well, but unfortunately it was the wrong approach to the future.
The Importance of Leadership and Unity
Effective leadership is essential in times of crisis. Grand Master von Hompesch’s inability to unify the Order and address internal divisions contributed significantly to their swift defeat. The lack of cohesion within the Order, as well as the failure to leverage the Knights’ previous tactical strengths displayed during the Great Siege of 1565, underscored the importance of unity and strong leadership in moments of crisis.
Public Support Is Vital
In 1565, the unity between the Knights and the Maltese was instrumental in repelling the Ottoman siege. By 1798, widespread discontent among the Maltese undermined the Knights’ defensive efforts, as highlighted during the blockade of the Three Cities by the French. Addressing the needs and grievances of the population is vital for maintaining a strong defense.
Conclusion
The Knights of Malta’s journey from victorious defenders during the Great Siege to their eventual defeat by the French underscores the perils of failing to adapt. Their corsairing activities, once a source of strength and prosperity, became a liability as the world changed around them. The inability to modernize economically and militarily, coupled with internal divisions, weak leadership, and loss of public support, left them vulnerable to conquest.
Malta’s history during this period offers timeless lessons in adaptability, strategic planning, leadership, and the importance of aligning with broader geopolitical shifts. It serves as a cautionary tale for organizations and nations alike: to survive and thrive, one must be willing to evolve and address internal as well as external challenges.
Further Reading
- Bradford, Ernle. The Great Siege: Malta 1565. Hodder & Stoughton, 1961.
- Cassar, Carmel. Society, Culture and Identity in Early Modern Malta. Mireva Publications, 2000.
- Hardman, William. A History of Malta During the Period of the French and British Occupations, 1798–1815. Longmans, Green, and Co., 1909.
- Sire, H.J.A. The Knights of Malta. Yale University Press, 1994.
- Vassallo, Carmel. Corsairing to Commerce: Maltese Merchants in XVIII Century Spain. Malta University Press, 1997.
- Löhr, Wolfgang. New Light on the Life of Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch. Symposia Melitensia Number 10, 2015.
- Dawl Ġdid Fuq il-Ħajja tal-Gran Mastru Ferdinand von Hompesch
