The late 18th century was a turbulent period for Malta, a small yet strategically vital archipelago in the Mediterranean. After the swift French invasion in 1798, the Maltese people found themselves under a foreign rule that quickly turned oppressive. An uprising soon followed, culminating in a two-year blockade around the Three Cities—Vittoriosa, Senglea, and Cospicua—which became a defining chapter in Malta’s struggle for independence. This is the story of how local leaders rallied their compatriots, with British support under Captain Alexander Ball, and how the heroes of this blockade left an enduring legacy of resilience on the island.
More Context :
- Why did the Knights Build the three cities?
- The ottoman invasion of Malta.
- What happened to the knights after the great siege?
The Uprising and Blockade Formation
Seeds of Discontent
The French arrived under the guise of liberation, initially welcomed by some Maltese as an end to the rule of the Knights of St. John. Almost immediately, the French introduced sweeping reforms aimed at modernizing Malta’s feudal society. They abolished the inquisition, slavery, secularized the judiciary, and centralized administration, even instituting a new public education system based on Enlightenment principles. But these drastic changes deeply clashed with Malta’s Catholic and conservative traditions. The French quickly alienated the population by seizing church property, melting down sacred artifacts for bullion, and imposing heavy taxes to fund their military campaigns. For the deeply religious Maltese, the French disregard for their faith and traditions was intolerable.
The breaking point came on September 2, 1798, in Rabat, where the French tried to auction off church treasures, igniting a spontaneous uprising. Angered townspeople rallied, and the rebellion soon spread to neighboring villages. Armed with anything they could find—farm tools, muskets, and stones—the Maltese attacked French outposts, marking the beginning of their fight for freedom.
Organizing the Resistance
Key figures emerged to lead the resistance. Canon Francesco Saverio Caruana, a respected cleric from Żebbuġ, used his influence to organize scattered rebels. Notary Emmanuele Vitale from Mdina took charge of military strategies, while Vincenzo Borg, known as “Brared,” galvanized the central regions of Malta, emphasizing unity and perseverance.
The rebels focused on the strategic Three Cities, known collectively as Cottonera. Situated across the Grand Harbour from Valletta, these fortified cities were key defensive points during the Great Siege of 1565. Guerrilla warfare became the primary tactic of the Maltese rebels, who launched frequent ambushes and attacks on French patrols, disrupting their supply lines and morale. This forced the French to withdraw into their fortified strongholds in Valletta and the Three Cities, where they could control their limited resources more effectively but remained vulnerable to a prolonged siege. Controlling the Cottonera area allowed the Maltese to encircle the French forces and cut off critical supplies, adding pressure to the occupiers.
The first failed attempts to resist
The Anti-French Plot of 1799 was a daring yet ultimately futile attempt by Maltese patriots within French-controlled Valletta to overthrow the occupiers. By early 1799, following the French occupation, Maltese rebels outside Valletta received support from British and Portuguese forces, who blockaded Valletta and the Three Cities. While the French retained control of key fortified areas and most of the island’s food stores, the Maltese inside Valletta secretly organized a plot led by Fr. Michael Scerri, a popular philosophy professor, and Colonel Guglielmo Lorenzi, a seasoned Corsican military strategist.
The plan aimed to capture key sites within Valletta and signal for an external assault. Each group, led by figures like Francesco Peralta and Luigi Amato, was strategically placed to attack different sections of Valletta. However, just before the planned date, a Genoese ship breached the blockade, bringing food and news of French victories, which boosted French morale and caused confusion among the Maltese. This setback, combined with betrayal by an informer, led to the capture and execution of the conspirators. Over 43 patriots were executed between January and April 1799, including Scerri and Lorenzi. While the plot failed, it is honored in Maltese history and culture, symbolizing the patriots’ sacrifice for freedom.
Establishing the Blockade
By late September 1798, the Maltese insurgents had surrounded Valletta i.e. the fort of St Elmo, trapping approximately 3,000 French soldiers within its walls. The rebels set up defensive positions and makeshift batteries around the Grand and Marsamxett Harbours, using high ground and fortifications to their advantage. In response, General Vaubois imposed strict rationing and extracted forced loans from wealthy Maltese families still within French-controlled areas, allowing his forces to stretch provisions beyond their natural limits. He also expelled local inhabitants to conserve resources for his soldiers. Despite these efforts, conditions inside the fortifications grew dire as food and supplies dwindled, but Vaubois’ tenacity kept French resistance alive for nearly two years.
The blockade was both a physical and psychological siege. The Maltese severed communication lines, intercepted dispatches, and ambushed French foraging parties, utilizing guerrilla tactics. Although outmatched in equipment, the Maltese demonstrated resilience and ingenuity, eroding the morale of the French garrison.
Health and Resource Strategies as Siege Weapons
In the crowded, resource-starved conditions of the siege, disease was as dangerous as any weapon, and both the French and Maltese used health and resource control to gain an edge. With fresh water and basic supplies running low, each side found ways to weaponize these shortages, weakening their opponents not just by combat but by the constant threat of illness and starvation.
The French Approach: To protect their forces and avoid a breakdown from within, the French enforced strict health measures. They followed containment practices based on rules left by the Order of St. John, who had long managed contagion risks on Malta. Sick soldiers were isolated quickly to stop disease from spreading, and this helped keep the healthy troops in fighting shape. However, with food and clean water in short supply, maintaining these precautions became harder, and health itself became a constant battle.
Maltese Tactics: The Maltese rebels, understanding that illness could cripple the French from within, used quarantine as a weapon. When they captured French prisoners showing signs of illness, they sent them to the small, isolated island of Comino. There, prisoners had to wash and follow routines that minimized any risk of infecting the Maltese forces. By keeping the French separated, the rebels not only protected their own health but also kept the French forces in a constant struggle with sickness.
Water as a Weapon: One of the Maltese’s most effective tactics was cutting off the Wignacourt Aqueduct, the primary source of fresh water to Valletta. With this lifeline severed, the French were forced to drink from old cisterns, where the stagnant water soon became a breeding ground for illness, especially dysentery. This water blockade was as much a weapon as any cannon, slowly weakening the French as illness spread through their ranks.
Starvation and Scurvy: As fresh supplies ran out, the French began to suffer from scurvy and malnutrition. Citrus fruits, vital for treating scurvy, were strictly rationed and reserved for hospitals, with severe penalties for anyone caught taking them. The Maltese blockade made this scarcity even worse, and as supplies dwindled, the French forces became physically weaker, their morale deteriorating along with their health.
This wasn’t just a military standoff; it was a battle fought through deprivation and disease, where health measures, quarantine tactics, and resource blockades became weapons of war. The siege took a toll on both sides, but the rebels’ ability to harness these tactics to weaken the French contributed decisively to Malta’s fight for independence.
The Role of British Support and Captain Alexander Ball
Calls for Aid
Realizing that they needed external support, Maltese leaders reached out to the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the British Royal Navy. Emphasizing Malta’s strategic location in the Mediterranean, they persuaded the British, who were eager to curb French influence in the region. Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson, recognizing the strategic potential of the uprising, dispatched Captain Alexander Ball to assist. For Britain, Malta represented a crucial naval stronghold to counter French expansion and protect British trade routes, particularly with India. This broader goal made the British an especially committed ally, and Ball’s presence marked a turning point in the blockade.
The Arrival of Captain Ball
Captain Alexander Ball arrived off Malta’s coast in October 1798, bringing military expertise, supplies, and naval support. His presence marked a turning point. Ball’s respectful approach earned him the trust of Maltese leaders, with whom he coordinated strategies and strengthened the blockade.
The British Strategy: Constant Pressure
The British strategy was to keep up pressure without risking a full-on assault. They used frigates and smaller gunboats to sail near these French positions, bombard them, and then retreat before the French could effectively respond. This type of harassment wore down the French forces, making it difficult for them to keep supplies up and morale high.
The Blockade of the French ships
Under Ball’s direction, the blockade tightened significantly. British vessels patrolled Malta’s waters, intercepting French ships attempting to deliver supplies. On land, Ball helped organize the Maltese forces, training them and establishing supply lines to sustain the resistance. His effective leadership not only bolstered the military blockade but also uplifted the population’s morale, particularly by distributing food shipments fairly to alleviate famine.
The bombardment of the Maltese Forts by the English
During the blockade of Malta from 1798 to 1800, the British navy focused on bombarding key French strongholds and strategic points, especially around the Grand Harbour. The idea was to weaken French control, interrupt their supply lines, and support the Maltese who were resisting the French occupation. Here’s a closer look at where these bombardments took place:
1. Valletta and Fort Saint Elmo
- Fort Saint Elmo, located at the tip of the Sciberras Peninsula overlooking both Grand Harbour and Marsamxett Harbour, was a key target. This fort let the French control access to both harbors, making it crucial for the British to weaken. Bombarding Saint Elmo put pressure on the French by disrupting their defenses and cutting off supply lines to other positions.
- Parts of Valletta itself, especially its fortified waterfront, were also bombarded. By targeting Valletta’s gun emplacements and walls, the British hoped to break down the French defenses and reduce their hold over the city.
2. Fort Ricasoli
- Situated at the entrance to Grand Harbour on the Kalkara Peninsula, Fort Ricasoli was another key target. Directly across from Fort Saint Elmo, it protected the opposite side of the harbor entrance, adding an extra layer of defense to French-held Valletta.
- British ships aimed to weaken Fort Ricasoli to prevent the French from defending the harbor effectively, which helped undermine the French position in the area.
3. Fort Tigné
- On the Marsamxett Harbour side, opposite Fort Saint Elmo, Fort Tigné was a newer fortification held by the French. This stronghold allowed the French to monitor and control Marsamxett Harbour.
- British ships periodically bombarded Fort Tigné to keep the French from establishing control in this area, making it harder for them to secure their naval operations.
4. Smaller Garrisons and Coastal Batteries
- Alongside the major forts, the British targeted smaller coastal batteries and French garrisons around Valletta and other key points on the island. These batteries helped the French monitor the coastline and secure supply routes, so bombarding them kept the French forces stretched thin.
Impact on the Siege
Over time, these targeted bombardments made it harder for the French to defend their positions, contributing to a serious shortage of supplies and ammunition. With Captain Ball leading the Maltese resistance and managing the tight naval blockade, the French defenses slowly crumbled. By September 1800, the French surrendered, allowing Britain to take control of Malta and secure a crucial Mediterranean base.
Heroes of the Blockade and Their Legacy
Canon Francesco Saverio Caruana
Caruana was a spiritual and strategic leader whose influence mobilized wide support. Beyond his religious role, he was involved in military planning, often visiting front lines to encourage fighters. His dedication made him a symbol of national pride, later serving as Bishop of Malta in 1831.
Emmanuele Vitale
With a background in law, Vitale applied his analytical skills to organize militias, bolstering their discipline and effectiveness. He was directly involved in defending key positions and maintaining pressure on the French, later continuing his public service to support Maltese rights.
Vincenzo Borg “Brared”
A charismatic leader, Borg organized central Malta, mobilizing supplies and volunteers. His ability to connect with diverse groups helped unify the resistance and maintain morale across the regions. His legacy endures as a figure who bridged divides and embodied the collective spirit of the uprising.
Victory and Lasting Impacts
The French Surrender
By the summer of 1800, the French garrison was on the brink of collapse due to depleted supplies, low morale, and rampant disease. On September 4, 1800, French General Vaubois surrendered, and French troops evacuated aboard British ships. This victory marked the end of the French occupation and the beginning of British governance.
The Establishment of British Rule
Following the French withdrawal, Malta became a British protectorate. While initial negotiations sought to return Malta to the Knights Hospitaller, Britain ultimately retained control, transforming Malta into a central naval hub for the Mediterranean. This positioned Malta as a key launch base for British expeditions against Egypt and the Ionian Islands in the early 19th century. Leaders like Ball laid the groundwork for infrastructure improvements and reforms, and British rule provided Malta with a level of stability and development that would continue through its eventual independence in 1964. For the Maltese, the resistance to the occupying French became a proud and defining chapter in their national history.
Cultural and Historical Significance
The blockade solidified a national identity of resilience and unity. The fortifications and streets of Vittoriosa, Senglea, and Cospicua bear witness to Malta’s fight for freedom, with museums and memorials honoring the heroes of the blockade. Visitors to the Three Cities can explore Fort St. Angelo and Fort Rinella, where these pivotal events unfolded, connecting past struggles to Malta’s present-day pride.
Lessons in Unity and Resilience
The Maltese uprising against a superior military force underscored the power of unity and strategic resilience. Health regulations, quarantine tactics, and resource management became as essential as military maneuvers in this prolonged siege. The collaboration between Maltese leaders and Alexander Ball illustrated the impact of mutual respect and shared goals, shaping Malta’s identity and history.
One major reason for the French’s successful invasion was the Knights’ misjudgment in preparing for the wrong kind of war. Expecting a second Great Siege, the Knights had fortified the Cottonera lines, focusing on defending against an extended, traditional siege rather than a swift, multi-front invasion. Whilst the Ottomans made several strategic mistakes, the French did not. They also relied heavily on income from corsair activities, which had been declining, weakening their financial base. The defensive tactics that had succeeded in the first siege would not have been effective against the French’s new approach. Malta and the Three Cities would face another test during World War II, and this time, they withstood the siege without succumbing to their invaders.
Conclusion
The blockade of the Three Cities stands as a pivotal chapter in Malta’s fight for freedom, a testament to the resilience of its people and the power of collective action. The stories of Caruana, Vitale, Borg, and the many unsung heroes who supported the resistance have become an enduring legacy. For history enthusiasts, the events of 1798-1800 offer a rich narrative of heroism, strategy, and collaboration. For visitors, the Three Cities provide a tangible link to Malta’s remarkable journey from oppression to liberation. This chapter of history, woven into Malta’s identity, continues to inspire a spirit of pride and resilience that defines the nation to this day.
References:
- Ellul, G.V. (1978). The French invasion of Malta : an unpublished account. Hyphen, 1(3), 1-20
- Knight, Roger. The Pursuit of Victory: The Life and Achievement of Horatio Nelson. New York: Basic Books, 2005.
- Hardman, William. A History of Malta During the Period of the French and British Occupations, 1798–1815. London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1909.
- Cassar, George. The French Occupation of Malta, 1798–1800. Malta: Mireva Publications, 1988.
Spiteri, Stephen C. The Fortifications of Malta 1530–1945. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2008. - Cole, Juan. Napoleon’s Egypt: Invading the Middle East. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
- Bonello, Giovanni. Histories of Malta: Deceptions and Perceptions. Valletta: Fondazzjoni Patrimonju Malti, 2000.
- Martin, Robert. Napoleon’s Mediterranean Empire. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military, 2008.
Learn more about the Three cities:
